Multidimensional crises in the Management of Education in Nigerian Universities

By Professor Dele Adeoti

The financing sources for Nigerian universities are diverse, though the main sources of income vary based on the ownership structure of the institutions. They include government/proprietor allocations, student fees and levies, grants, Tertiary Education Trust Funds (TETFund), endowments and internally generated revenue (IGR). For this lecture, four main sources, namely government/proprietor allocation, IGR, TETFund and student fees/levies, will be examined.

Figure 3: Major Sources of Income for Nigerian Universities[i]

Government/Proprietor Allocation

Universities in sub-Saharan Africa frequently rely on funding from the government as shown in Table 4. The Nigerian government funds 90% of the expenses of federal universities; the remaining 10% is expected to come from internal sources. Although information about funding of federal universities is widely available, there is a shortage of data regarding state-owned universities. Obtaining data for private institutions has proven to be challenging. The entire amount allotted to the education sector relative to the overall government budget is significant because it goes against the widespread argument, led by various education stakeholders and the Academic Staff Union of Nigeria Universities (ASUU), that the government should devote at least 26% of the entire national budget or 6% of GDP to education, as advised by the United Nations Educational, Social and Cultural Organization (UNESCO). The complex issue of inadequate funding impacting Nigerian universities’ performance in the national and international arena is at the heart of ASUU’s insistence. According to Education Finance Watch (EWF), Nigeria was categorised among countries with no data at all concerning public education expenditure as a share of total public expenditure and a share of GDP.[ii]

Figure 4: Total Education Spending in Africa, by Source, Constant 2021 US$ Billion, 2012-21[iii]

Note: The share of government in total education spending has remained relatively stable since 2012; it accounts for 69 percent of total education spending in 2021. In Africa, countries rely significantly on households, which are estimated to have contributed 27 percent of total education spending in 2021. As part of the response for countries affected by the pandemic, donor contributions to education increased by 15 percent from 2019 to 2020 but fell by 7 per cent in 2021. Overall, aid accounted for 5 percent of total education spending in 2021.

It is crucial to note that, despite the UNESCO Institute of Statistics’ and UNESCO’s core data regarding the 26 per cent educational allocation, two significant forces must not be overlooked. First, the UNESCO statistical distributions were derived from multiple UNESCO data sets averaged over data sets from developed and developing nations. Therefore, the foundation of these reports should not be the primary rationale for the government’s distribution of education funding. Within the constraints of Nigeria’s economic capabilities, funding universities must be realistically pursued sustainably. The second force describes the value of the UNESCO-established 26% allotment. Fulfilling international best practices in education funding through the UNESCO data sets is the foundation for sustainable financial allocation. However, the UNESCO 26 per cent funding model is questioned since Nigerian universities traditionally rely on government funding.

Table 4: Budgetary Allocation to Universities in Nigeria, 2008-2020

Although there are issues with accessing reliable information on allocation and funding processes in state and private universities, it can be assumed they are also facing similar problems. The funding crisis has even become more complex, with the inability of states to provide sustainable finance for their universities, which has been made worse by the widespread economic downturn and the effect of COVID-19. Lagos State University receives a monthly subvention of N450,000,000 from the state government, which is also responsible for its infrastructural developments, among other ancillary mandates.[iv] Notwithstanding these efforts, some critics argue that the monthly subvention is infinitesimal compared to what should accrue to the university regarding funding.

Government’s Inability to Sustain Finance of Education

The news that the federal government cannot finance university education again has caused several crises in the Nigerian university space in the past six months. Subsidy removal issues have dominated Nigeria’s national politics since the emergence of President Bola Ahmed Tinubu’s administration on 29th May 2023. The removal of subsidy in the oil and gas sector has caused economic hardship, an increase in the prices of food and basic commodities, and drastic reduction in the purchasing power of the citizens. Another area of subsidy removal that has continued to cause rancour is the removal of subsidy for university education. This has dominated national discourse, given the percentage of Nigerian youths affected by it. The removal has led to increased fees paid by students in various universities. The finances provided by the Federal Government cannot adequately fund the operation of these universities.

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Professor Mamman,Minister of Education

Professor Lilian Salami, Vice Chancellor of the University of Benin and the Chair of the Committee of Vice-Chancellors, decried the cost of running universities. She disclosed that her university “receives a monthly budget of N11 million, and in contrast, she spends N77 million on electricity alone but has to find creative ways to run the university.”[v] The immediate response to the university increment in charges was student protests across the country; they predicated their action on their lack of capacity to pay the charges owing to the economic hardships caused by the removal of fuel subsidy. In response to these developments, the Federal Government and administrators of several universities publicly debunked the increment and stated that university education remained tuition-free but that “what they (universities) collect is charges to cover the running costs of the universities, such as accommodation, information, communication, and technology (ICT), power, and maintenance of the university, among others.”[vi]

The Student Loan Programme Debacle

President Bola Ahmed Tinubu signed the Access to Higher Education Act, 2023, or the Student Loan Act. There are however controversies about the intentions of the student loan initiative, feasibility, and foreseeable un foreseeable challenges. By its provisions, the Act establishes an Education Loan Fund to help Nigerians fund their higher education. At the same time, they pay in instalments two years after participating in the National Youth Service Corps (NYSC) programme. After signing the bill, President Tinubu instructed relevant stakeholders to ensure the disbursement of student loans by the end of the September/October 2023/2024 academic session. However, the question across the national space has been to what extent the student loan can solve the perennial funding crisis facing Nigerian university education. Critics have observed that the students’ loan scheme is only one attempt out of many at addressing the challenges confronting Nigeria’s higher education system. Some arguments suggest that the challenges in the tertiary institutions in the country go far beyond loan schemes for indigent students.[vii] This is because the cost of higher education in government-owned tertiary institutions is cheaper than the cost of education charged by owners of some privately-owned elementary schools. The government at the centre claims that public tertiary institutions in Nigeria are currently and officially tuition-free! However, students are made to pay course registration and other ancillary fees.

Some of the major challenges of higher education in Nigeria include lack of capacity to ensure that these institutions are real citadels of learning, poor remuneration of staff, inadequate academic staff, poor staff training and development, poor teaching and research traditions, and inadequate funding.[viii] The assumption that higher education is meant for all is a major challenge that has created over-reliance on paper qualifications. People who should ordinarily take up other vocations or skills struggle to obtain paper qualifications for which they do not have the capacity. Beyond all these, it is significant to note that after the October 2023, then January 2024 dates announced for the launch of the loan scheme, the Federal Government recently suspended it indefinitely.

(B) Tertiary Education Trust Fund (TETFund)

Under Act No. 7 of 1993, the Education Tax Fund, later renamed Education Trust Fund (ETF) and currently known as the Tertiary Education Trust Fund (TETFund), was created to carry out initiatives to raise the standard of education in Nigeria.[ix] For the start, finish, or restoration of capital projects that federal and state universities have initiated, the Fund has been a significant source of funding support for many institutions across the nation. It has sponsored or provided funding for most of the recent capital improvements in our universities. The normal interventions of TETFund in tertiary institutions are in the areas of construction and rehabilitation of buildings and laboratories; procurement of teaching and research equipment; academic staff training; research and book development; capacity building and teacher training programme; and provision of ICT infrastructure and development of facilities that sustain institutions, such as boreholes and electric power generators.

Nigerian universities have benefitted immensely from TETFund allocation over the years. Figure 5 indicates that, in 2019, federal and state-owned universities had the highest value of N115.558 billion, representing 60.28% of total disbursement made in the period, followed by colleges of education, with N38.206 billion (19.93%), while polytechnics received N37.455(19.79%).[x]

Figure 5: Audited Beneficiary Payment Vouchers Passed in 2019 Based on Intervention Line to Federal and State-owned Universities[xi]

However, despite the importance of TETFund, its fund disbursement has been riddled with series of crises. An important incident that can be referenced is the recent allegation of “financial banditry” against the Nigerian House of Representatives over the disbursement of TETFund. Farooq Kperogi described the House of Representatives as “legislative bandit” perpetrating corrupt practices through the disbursement of TETFund and other services. According to Kperogi:

…53 federal universities, 63 state universities, 38 federal polytechnics, 49 state polytechnics and many federal and state colleges of education, among other institutions,” are to “pay N2 million to facilitate the ‘verification’ of the documents submitted to the House committee.” The corrupt practice followed President Bola Ahmed Tinubu’s approval to disburse N683,429,268,402.64 to public higher education institutions under the TETFund scheme.[xii]

Education stakeholders have also noted that private institutions should also enjoy interventions from the TETFund to enable them reduce fees. Since private institutions depend on tuition fees for their existence, their multiplication will continue to put the spotlight on fees, which are a special problem for countries like ours that have made higher education free.

The debate on whether private universities in Nigeria should benefit from TETfund continues.[xiii] There are two sides: one considers how it is detrimental, while the other examines how it is harmless. The position of ASUU is that private universities should not be beneficiary of the intervention because it would likely lead to the proliferation of private universities with poor quality.[xiv] Contrary to ASUU’s position, a protagonist of TETfund intervention for private universities, Prof. Luke Onuoha, argued that quality, research and output should be the parameters for private universities needing such intervention. He contended that since the TETfund comes from taxpayers, it should be made available for all institutions and academics, irrespective of their status.[xv]

(C) Internally Generated Revenue (IGR)

Universities have created various avenues for generating funds. These range from creation of consulting firms to establishment of part-time programmes. In fact, the federal government expects federal institutions to generate IGR equal to at least 10% of the total allocation from government. As a result, federal institutions have launched various initiatives that affect their primary duties differently. A significant portion of the IGR programmes created by the universities does not focus on the market in terms of pricing and costing but rather on utilising current market trends. As a result, the ideal revenue has not been generated to address funding issues. In other instances, IGR programmes are often implemented on needs-basis and then discontinued midway into the project.

(D) Student Fees and Levies

Until the declaration that the Federal Government can no longer fund university education, all federal institutions, and a few state universities, were not allowed to charge tuition fees. They were only allowed “limited charges/levies” for provision of services (such as accommodation in halls of residence), sports, limited contribution to meeting the cost of municipal services (water and electricity), and laboratory consumables in science-based programmes. Prior to the administration of President Bola Ahmed Tinubu, undergraduate students registered in the various programmes in these universities paid between N20,000 and N60,000 per session, including accommodation fee. Attempts by federal institutions to increase levies have always been met with stiff opposition by students, leaving these institutions to make do with whatever can be amicably settled with students. However, in the past six months, there has been a wave of change in the limited charges/levies by various federal universities. The increased charges are not peculiar to only federal and state universities; private universities have also increased their fees based on the current economic realities.

Nature of Expenditure in Nigerian Universities

The major items of expenditure in the university, as illustrated in Figure 7, are recurrent expenditure (salaries and wages); capital projects; overhead (electricity and water supply, maintenance of facilities, etc.); research and development; staff development; staff/student welfare; and general administration. Federal universities are now fully supported on salaries and wages through the allocation under personnel cost.

Figure 7: Nature of Expenditure in Nigerian Universities[xvi]

The existence and overall performance of universities depend heavily on their funding. The lack of sufficient and sustainable funding for them is causing several problems. The following are a few of the current issues brought by insufficient funding:

1. Infrastructural Deficit

Unlike most private universities, Nigerian public universities suffer from a monumental infrastructural deficit. Undoubtedly, infrastructural facilities in these institutions are not only in short supply but also fall short of national and global standards. Apart from the facilities being grossly inadequate, many have become substandard, overcrowded and used for purposes not intended in the original plan. An average public university lacks general facilities, such as regular water supply, standard hostels, toilets, electricity, libraries, laboratories and modern classrooms. Generally, laboratories are in short supply and the few available ones are obsolete. Access roads are in a state of disrepair and lecture theatres are deplorable. Besides, the environment for training students allows for loss of values and confidence. Staff and students are demoralized and lose the self-esteem needed to pursue innovation and development.

2. The Japa Crisis

The number of Nigerian academics and students migrating overseas has increased tremendously. This phenomenon is often defined as Japa syndrome – mass emigration of Nigerian professionals and students to developed countries in search of greener pastures. The Japa syndrome is not only found among students and youths; many Nigerian academics have also taken to the route of migration owing primarily to economic crises linked to lack of sustainable funding for education.

Japa, however, took a different twist in recent years, with Nigeria-trained medical practitioners, information technology experts, and digital and non-digital-savvy young and middle-aged civil servants, paramilitary personnel and even drivers joining the migration train. European and Western capital cities and hinterlands have received Nigerians with different skills. The East and Asian countries are also not left out. A growing number of students are leaving Nigeria’s post-secondary education systems for better opportunities overseas, making education one of the industries most affected by this trend. According to figures from the British Government, the number of Nigerians given study visas increased by almost 800% in 2022 compared to 2019.

Figure 8: Emigration of Nigerian students to the United Kingdom, 2013 to 2023[xvii]

3. Decay of Research and Innovation

Over the years, there has been a lack of research and innovation that would help drive the country’s growth and development in our universities. Several factors contribute to this anomaly. A major issue is the improper recruitment of academic staff in the last few decades. Young scholars who show promise and are dedicated to scholarship are often overlooked for mediocre ones with nothing to offer the academic system. Not only are these individuals lazy intellectually, they are also often unwilling to learn the ropes through mentoring. They generally become a liability to their department, the university and the field. Another factor is the dearth of mentorship in the system. This has deprived several young and promising scholars the necessary tutoring that will help to drive innovative and cutting-edge research. Many senior academics who have won accolades at national and international levels for their resounding research and innovation fail to tutor and pass down their success stories to younger ones; this creates a vacuum at some point.

4. ASUU, Universities Staff Welfare and Funding Crises

The on-going negotiation between the Academic Staff Union of Universities (ASUU) and the Nigerian government is crucial for understanding university management and growth. The government’s sustained support for higher education, including financing, infrastructure and long-term welfare packages, is a key point in the negotiation. The Nigerian university teachers have been advocating reforms in the terms of service of academics since 1964. In 1972, the University of Ibadan faced a crisis when lecturers threatened to strike, potentially causing the 1972/1973 session not to start in September. The university could have continued with the academic calendar if the Association of University Teachers (AUT) had shown understanding.[xviii] The National Association of University Teachers (NAUT) and the Federal Military Government initiated labour disputes in 1972 until April 1973. In April 1973, university teachers went on strike under the banner of NAUT, citing unreviewed terms of service for 14 years. NAUT metamorphosed into ASUU in 1978, and has consistently support higher education initiatives.

Table 5: ASUU Industrial Action, 1999- 2013

ASUU launched multiple strikes between 2017 and 2022. The strike actions under President Muhammadu Buhari’s government are presented in Table 6.

Table 6: Strike Actions under the Muhammadu Buhari Administration, 2017-2022

A key component of the ASUU-Federal Government crisis is sustainable funding of Nigerian universities, which is critical to the operation of academics and the university’s existence. Three issues will be discussed here: the IPPIS crisis, proliferation of universities, and the welfare of Nigerian university academics in terms of sustainable salaries and funding for research and innovation.

The Integrated Payroll and Personnel Information System (IPPIS) was created in 2006, in line with the Federal Government’s reform initiatives to increase the storage of personnel records and streamline the administration of workers’ monthly payroll. The IPPIS became a source of agitation and contention between the Federal Government and ASUU; the latter requesting to be pulled out of the initiative and allowed to create an alternative platform. The agitation led to an eight-month strike by ASUU in 2022. The IPPIS was created to weed out unauthorized personnel, or what is commonly referred to as ghost workers, from the government payroll. Whether this was achieved maximally is unclear but the platform has been riddled with corruption, in addition to short-changing university workers. Its adverse effect on Nigerian public universities has been immense. It relates to the crisis of funding in Nigeria’s higher education because the funds the universities need to run effectively are determined centrally, particularly by civil servants who have no idea how the university education is administered. Not only did the implementation of IPPIS obliterate the culture of academic exchange in the university, it also denied many academics the opportunities to access the requisite funds for research and other statutory demands.

The second concern is proliferation of universities.[xix] The leadership of ASUU has emphasised that considering the experience of currently operating universities would be a good place to start when decisions are to be made about the creation of additional universities. The Federal Government has come under severe criticism from ASUU for building new institutions while the existing ones are in deplorable conditions. The Committee of Pro-Chancellors of State-owned Universities (COPSUN) supported ASUU in the proliferation debate and stated the following in a Premium Times article:

To maintain international best practices and be recognised among first rated Universities, the governments at the Federal and State levels should improve on the funding of their universities and enhance the welfare of the workforce, adding that state governments should exercise restraint in establishing new universities but invest heavily on the existing ones to improve on the quality of their infrastructure.

The position of ASUU centres on how insulated these institutions would be from the same difficulties being faced by the already established ones. Regarding funding, the initial budgetary allocation given to these new universities by the federal or state government is insufficient to cover the costs of operating a (standard) university that complies with international best practises. Professor Emmanuel Osodeke, the President of ASUU, contended that federal universities require an annual budget of ₦12 billion to operate effectively. While corporate and individual owners promise to give subventions to help private institutions stand independently, they face some of the difficulties occasioning the ASUU-FG debacle. Many private colleges, just like some state universities, no longer provide facilities that are appropriate for the institutions’ historical age, they often fail to move to their permanent locations, and frequently find it difficult to pay the salaries of their employees.

The terms of service, salary and welfare of academics have been the main points of contention in the ASUU-FG crisis. The issue of terms of service for university instructors has never gone away. The fact that the teachers’ employment terms were not reviewed for 14 years was the catalyst for the Association of University Teachers’ 1973 strike, which eventually led to the creation of ASUU in 1978.  Academics’ salaries, benefits and conditions of service have remained hotly debated. One of the primary reasons for brain drain is the low compensation received by professors. The widely disseminated report by two professors demonstrated just how inadequate university teachers’ pay has been.

1. The first, Prof. Funso Falade, on 5th February, 2024 while delivering his inaugural lecture captioned; “The Beginning and End of a Project”, preparatory to his retirement stated, “I reached the bar of the professorial salary scale in 2011. My salary was N420,167.43. The exchange rate then was N155.71 to $1 dollar in November 2011, meaning that my salary was $2,689.40. As I was finalizing this inaugural lecture on 22nd January, 2024, my salary (take home) stood at N395,500.00 and the exchange rate was N1,355.00 to a dollar showing my salary in dollars was $291.88 having spent more than twenty (20) years as a professor.”[xx]

2. The second incident is the tweet of a Professor of Law, Joy Ezeilo, SAN, on Saturday, 10th February, 2024, a day before the finals of the African Cup of Nations between the football teams of Nigeria and Cote d’Ivoire. According to her, “I am dreaming of watching AFCON 2024 live, and I enquired about flights to Abidjan to watch our Super Eagles play in the final. I believed that Ivory Coast being so close (an hour and 35 minutes) wouldn’t cost me too much. I did the maths and realised I would need to save my five months’ salary as a Professor of Law on the last professional step to buy a return ticket to a West African country. This is a sad reflection of our current economic realities.”[xxi]

1. Alternative Funding for University Education

Nigerian universities need to explore other sources of funding. According to the Special Report released by the Education Finance Watch (EFW) 2023, the African government is the main funding source. The share of government in total education spending has remained relatively stable since 2012; it accounted for 69 percent of total education spending in 2021. In Africa, countries rely significantly on households, estimated to have contributed 27 percent of total education spending in 2021. As part of the response for countries affected by the COVID-19 pandemic, donor contributions to education increased by 15 percent in 2019 and 2020 but fell by 7 percent in 2021. Overall, aid accounted for 5 percent of total education spending in 2021.

Underfunding and dependence on government funds remain a huge challenge for university governance in Nigeria. The current economic realities in the country demonstrate that the government alone can no longer fund university education. The inadequate and poor funding of higher education has significantly impacted research and teaching, two core focus areas of the university system. This has forced managers of our universities to embark on all kinds of income-generating projects for the sake of alternative funds. In many ways, how alternative funds are sourced is usually illegitimate and open to abuse. However, various alternative models could be explored by university managers to fund higher education in Nigeria. For universities in Nigeria to match their counterparts in developed nations, their managers must look at innovative ways to help generate funds.

Alternative sources of funding will include individuals, groups and corporate organisations. The sources require deliberate projection and processes to acquire considerable income from key targets or activities. In some parts of the world, especially in developed nations, managing higher education does not depend solely on government funding. Rather, higher education managers employ alternative sources while not excluding the conventional sources, which usually account for a lesser percentage of their full income.

Madam Vice-Chancellor, I provide a list of some of these alternative sources of funding below:

1. Tuition: Higher education is no longer cheap. Ivy League institutions in Europe and the United States charge very high tuition as part of the needed funds to effectively run and manage their institutions. Tuition is also part of students’ contribution to the growth and development of their institutions. Tuition can be charged at rates that reflect the status and future of the institution. However, prospective candidates or students who are unable to pay such high tuition but show academic promise could be provided with scholarships or bursaries by individuals or other bodies that exist for such purpose. Charging tuition commensurate with the future projection of the university’s developmental framework will greatly improve such a university’s funding status, especially government-owned tertiary institutions where “proper” tuition is not charged.
2. Running Remedial Programmes: Apart from the regular degree programmes run by many tertiary institutions, remedial, part-time or even long-distance programmes could be explored; these could help increase the funding of such institutions. There are many people who, by their work or desire to attain further degrees, require them to obtain a certificate. Tertiary institutions can run evening or weekend part-time programmes for this group. Those who may wish to work and still earn a degree can take advantage of the long-distance programmes offered by universities needing funds. The targets should include civil servants, staff of corporate organisations, businessmen and business women and others in various sectors. Long-vacation programmes can also be introduced for students who did not pass their examinations for a fee that could be pulled back into the university’s purse.

• Endowment Funds: This is one area lacking in many higher institutions in Nigeria. Wealthy citizens could be targeted to give endowment for buildings, funds to carry out research or annual gifts to the best students. To promote good relationships, the institution may honour some important figures in society or within the university community. This may be by naming lecture halls, libraries, hostels, stadiums and classroom blocks after them. At the base of endowment is publicity in the media, which the institution should prioritise. The names of donors should be published in the media to encourage others to donate.

1. Alumni Associations: The greatest asset of any tertiary institution is its alumni. This is because they have an emotional attachment to their institution and are often very proud to be associated with it. Tertiary institutions must have alumni database, keep track of their progress and occasionally reach out to them for support. The alumni should be recognised and celebrated whenever they achieve a feat. In addition, periodic events that will bring the alumni together should be held. Through this, they are encouraged to set up businesses whose proceeds could be used to minimise some of the financial burdens of the institution.
2. Award of Honorary Degrees: These targets wealthy individuals, renowned figures and important persons. Honorary degrees should be awarded to persons known for donating money to educational causes. Such an award comes with major financial benefits from the awardee, particularly those who have contributed immensely to national and global causes.
3. Collaboration with Private and Government Agencies: Tertiary institutions need to set up computer-based test centres, which could be used periodically by government agencies to conduct examinations, such as Unified Tertiary Matriculation Examination, or for recruitment into government or private agencies. Because this process comes up as often as possible annually, tertiary institutions must leverage this by ensuring a robust collaboration that will foster the need to use these facilities. This is a very important source of alternative funds for any institution. Institutions can set up consultancy services offering technical partnerships with state governments, industry, ministries, departments and government agencies.

Through proper planning and adequate exploitation of these sources, tertiary institutions will become less dependent on the government for funding. For these funding sources not to be open to abuse, they must be properly harnessed to ensure our universities are properly managed.

2. Conclusion and Policy Recommendation

Madam Vice-Chancellor, as I conclude this lecture, I must state categorically that the multidimensional crises in Nigeria university education is not a recent development. Professor Omonisi in his Inaugural lecture (Series 97) delivered in 1991 and titled “Evolution of African Historiography: An Overview” had this to say about the state of University education:

We must, however, guard against complacency and not pretend that all is well with the historical and other academic disciplines in present-day Nigeria. We are all aware of the familiar crippling problems that face students, staff and management of all Nigerian Universities. These range from chronic underfunding, poor infrastructure, shortage of teaching and research materials to the increasing use of the iron fist to undermine academic freedom and traditions. An atmosphere of demoralisation now pervades the entire University system which appears targeted for destruction to all intents and purposes. Meaningful research has become well-nigh impossible while numerous competent and serious studies have no hope of being published in the foreseeable future. Instant military memorabilia and junk journalism seem to have obeyed the law of nature by filling the gaping vacuum!

With all humility and a profound sense of responsibility, I wish to join all patriots in calling on our policy makers to arrest the glaring deterioration in the Nigerian academic environment not just by providing adequate funding for research, teaching and publication of scholarly works, but also by restoring, without delay, the glorious traditions of academia which are now disappearing like the dissolving mirages of the Sahara desert. Let us all learn from history lessons to avoid a reoccurrence of intellectual, cultural and political slavery. A nation that does not understand its past cannot comprehend its present nor properly chart its future

[i] Bamiro, O. “Sustainable Financing of Higher Education in Nigeria: Funding Models”: 48-80.

[ii]Education Finance Watch, Special Edition for the African Union Year of Education 2024. Available at: https://thedocs.worldbank.org/en/doc/70f42d39bab0a849b36b2de4208a35e1-0140022024/original/EFW2023-Africa-edition.pdf

[iii]Education Finance Watch, Special Edition for the African Union Year of Education 2024.

[iv] Ronke S. Idowu, LASU Receives N450m Subvention Every Month, Lagos Govt Reacts to Union’s Protest, Channelstv, September 14, 2020, https://www.channelstv.com/2020/09/14/lasu-receives-n450m-subvention-every-month-lagos-govt-reacts-to-unions-protest/#:~:text=%E2%80%9CWe%20wish%20to%20state%20categorically,the%20staffing%20of%20the%20institutions.

[v]Vanguard, Lack of Funding, Bane of Education in Nigeria — UNIBEN VC. November 19, 2020. Available at: https://www.vanguardngr.com/2020/11/lack-of-funding-bane-of-education-in-nigeria-uniben-vc/

[vi] Bakare, M. Why Universities Are Increasing Fees – Ministry of Education. August 15, 2023. Available at: https://www.premiumtimesng.com/news/top-news/616246-why-universities-are-increasing-fees-ministry-of-education.html

[vii] Jideofor Adibe, Issues with Tinubu’s Education Loan Scheme, By Jideofor Adibe, Premium Times, June 21, 2023, https://www.premiumtimesng.com/opinion/605745-issues-with-tinubus-education-loan-scheme-by-jideofor-adibe.html.

[viii] Olu Fasan, Tinubu’s Student Loans Law: An Ill-conceived, Half-baked Policy, Business Day, July 24, 2023, https://businessday.ng/columnist/article/tinubus-student-loans-law-an-ill-conceived-half-baked-policy/.

[ix] Onyeike, Victoria C., and Emmanuel O. Eseyin. “Tertiary Education Trust Fund (TETFund) and the Management of University Education in Nigeria.” Global Journal of Educational Research 13, no. 2 (2014): 63-72.

[x] The Tertiary Education Trust Fund (TETFund), Annual Report, 2019.

[xi] The Tertiary Education Trust Fund (TETFund), Annual Report, 2019.

[xii] Farooq Kpreoogi, House of Reps’ Legislative Banditry Against Universities. February 24, 2024. Available at: https://tribuneonlineng.com/house-of-reps-legislative-banditry-against-universities/

[xiii] For discussion on the contribution of private universities in Nigeria, see, Siyan Oyeweso “Private Universities in Nigeria: Inequality In Education?” in Sola Akinrinade and Siyan Oyeweso (eds), Perspective on Higher Education and Governance in Nigeria. (Ibadan: Noirledge Publishing, 2019). Pp.17-

19. Olu Aina, Private Universities in Nigeria: That they may not perish, Akinrinade, S. Oyeweso S. Samuel G.O, Kola-Olusanya, A. Pivotal Issues in Higher Education Development in Nigeria, University Press, PLC. 2020, 485-507; Siyan Oyeweso and Olawale Yemisi, Issues and perspectives on Research and Development in Nigerian private Universities in Olubunmi Ajibade, Bolu John Folayan, eds, Contemporary Issues in Private University Management in Nigeria, Macpherson University Press, 2022.

[xiv] Stephen Kenechi, ASUU Rejects Calls to Include Private Varsities as Beneficiaries of TETFund intervention, TheCable, October 11, 2023, https://www.thecable.ng/asuu-rejects-calls-to-include-private-varsities-as-beneficiaries-of-tetfund-interventions.

[xv] Iyabo Lawal, Why Private Universities Should Benefit from TETFund, by don, TheGuardian, September 28, 2023.

[xvi] Bamiro, O. “Sustainable Financing of Higher Education in Nigeria: Funding Models”, 48-80.

[xvii] Olayinka, A.I. Nigerian Japa Syndrome: Quo Vadis? Lecture Delivered at the 65^th Anniversary of the University of Ibadan Alumni Association (UIAA) Lagos State Branch, December, 5, 2023. University of Ibadan.

[xviii] Olayinka, A. I. Sustaining a Productive University System in the 21st Century: The Key Elements in the Debate. 11^th Convocation Lecture, Osun State University Osogbo. Osogbo: UNIOSUN Publishing Limited, 2022, 69 pp

[xix] Siyan Oyeweso, Interrogating Issues in the Proliferation of Universities in Nigeria. Delivered at the Post-Graduate College 80^th Interdisciplinary Research Discourse, University of Ibadan, June 27, 2023

[xx] Mahfouz A., Save Teachers, Rescue Nigeria. February 24, 2024. Available at: https://mahfouzadedimeji.com/2024/02/20/save-teachers-rescue-nigeria/

[xxi] Mahfouz A. Save Teachers, Rescue Nigeria. February 24, 2024. Available at: https://mahfouzadedimeji.com/2024/02/20/save-teachers-rescue-nigeria/